The Piper Oil Field Engineering Essay

The genus bagpiper Oil Field Engineering EssayIntroductionOn the night of June the 6th, 1988, an explosion took place on the bagpiper important anele and vaunt production course of study. It led to a series of fires that eventually melted the political platform into the waters of the labor union Sea, killing a hundred and lx seven men, and resulting in insurance divergencees of U.S. $3.4 billion. To date, it re primary(prenominal)s the worst inshore disaster in the history of the Petroleum industry, defined in terms of twain tender and fiscal loss. The images of horror broadcasted from the disaster site, the final tally of human lives lost(p), and the enormous financial loss shock Occidental Petroleum, the operator of the platform, violently. It has since become worthy of complete(a) examination, to fully assimilate the numerous lessons it has to offer. Ronin Advanced Systems investigated the events leading up to that night, pinpointing the deficiencies in the fragi le Safety Matrix then applied by Occidental Petroleum, in rank to provide viable recommendations that can help prevent such accidents from happening in the future and increase the overall Operational Safety of offshore installations.Purpose and ScopeThe impact of the bagpiper of import disaster on the Petroleum industry was huge. It was on such an unprecedented level that every fossil oil colour company made it an absolute requirement to document it as a Case Study. The purpose of this query is to isolate the faults and errors carried bulge by both the caution of Occidental Petroleum as s intimately as the crew of Piper important, which directly resulted in the disaster. This make-up will cover several topics regarding the Piper Alpha offshore production platform, including its muddle, construction, modification, Safety Matrix and Record, as head as the timeline of the disaster and its aftermath. Throughout the report, we do non include any on-site research from the Pip er oil flying field.AssumptionsOur recommendations are ground on the assumption that the Piper Alpha disaster could have been completely avoided. This is in turn based on the fact that its management made a series of wrong decisions, which seriously compromised the unspoilt level on board the platform and rendered its crew helpless in face of accidents. The failure of the crew to act appropriately with respect to the sequence of events of the disaster can tho be attributed to the failure of Occidentals management.The assumption is handlewise based on the factual and documented deterioration of the refuge level on board the platform after its modification to produce gasconade. Several gas leaks were preserve and a research commissi mavind by Occidental to investigate the newly installed burn out verges which found them of extreme risk was ignored. At the end of this report, we will build without a shred of doubt that the assumption holds thus, deeming our recommendati on worthy of existence dedicate into action as soon as possible.MethodsThe information in this report was compiled from various sources including Lord Cullens Public Inquiry, numerous printed and electronic publications, video footage from the British Royal Air Force helicopters, as well as the numerous actualise vessels, that were present on site during rescue operations and the accounts of the survivors.LimitationsAs mentioned earlier, this research is limited to materials and information available in the Public Do main(prenominal) via the Internet, various publications, and record video footage. In addition, Ronin Advanced Systems was not able to send any personnel to the disaster site to perform on-location examination out-of-pocket to the following main reasonsThe incident happened on July the 6th, 1988.The Piper Alpha offshore production platform melted down to its middle. Furthermore, its remains were later detonated and withdraw by Occidental Petroleum.Piper oil fieldA hundred and twenty miles from Aberdeen, beneath well-nigh of the fiercest waters of the mating Sea, lies the Piper oilfield. A joint venture of quartet companies, cognize as the OPCAL (short for Occidental Petroleum Caledonia) and led by Occidental Petroleum, obtained a license to explore those waters in 1972, after the British government allowed offshore exploration licenses in 1964 (Miller, 1991). The Piper oil field was observed in the early months of 1973, prompting OPCAL to commission the construction of the Piper Alpha platform, as well as the pipelines and Onshore Support Installations. Oil production started in late 1976. At its peak, the Piper oilfield produced 30,000 tons of oil daily. Nearby, ii more fields were discovered those were the Tartan and the Claymore oilfields. Two more platforms were commissioned and named after the two fields respectively. The three vast oilfields Piper, Tartan and Claymore are usually referred to together with as the Piper oilfield. move into 1 Location of Piper Oilfield with respect to Aberdeen and Flotta Oil FacilityAs shown in haoma 1, OPCAL built the Flotta oil termination on the Orkney Islands to collect and process oil from the three colossal fields. As the development of the three platforms progressed, more oil and gas lines were laid, resulting in Piper being at the heart of a busy network of pipelines. Its platform acted as both a communication systems hub as well as an oil and gas collection point, in the first place relaying it all onto shore on one main line, namely the Main Oil imbibe or MOL, which is the line seen connecting the Piper field and Flotta in skeletal frame 1. This report will dedicate an unblemished subsection to further examine the pipeline network surrounding the Piper oilfield and its neighbouring counterparts. It will likewise discuss the impacts that network had on the level of Operational Safety on board the Piper Alpha platform and how it actively contributed to its tr agic and total annihilation off the waters of the North Sea.Piper AlphaPiper Alpha, the platform that exploited the Piper oilfield, stood tall at two hundred metres above seabed. Its miasmic size made it seem almost indestructible. It was originally knowing for oil production, but was later adapted to produce natural gas as well a decision that proved to have tragic consequences. Producing almost ten percent of Britains North Sea oil and gas in 1988, Piper Alpha was highly productive. It was deemed a lucrative investment for Occidental Petroleum, shoring millions of dollars annually. It is assumed that at the time of the accident, the platform was the heaviest offshore production rig operating in the North Sea. come in 2 Piper Alpha Offshore Oil bodge Production PlatformPiper Alpha was a fixed platform constructed by McDermott Engineering at Ardesier and UIE at Cherbourg, with sections united at Ardersier during 1975 (Wikipedia, 2010). The platform consisted of four modules (A, B, C and D) separated by Fire-Proofed walls, and arranged such that the most self-destructive works such as drilling were as far as possible from the Accommodation Block. At the time of the accident, the platform operated cardinal-six well heads employ various technologies that were then available. Figure 3, an East-side Elevation of the platform, illustrates its modular design and the locations of the battlegrounds of interest to the scope of this report, mainly Modules C, D and the Oil Separation Compartment in Module B.Figure 3 East Elevation of Piper Alphathe impacts of the 1980 Gas module fittingImpact on the platform LayoutI Production Level 84In 1980, a Gas Recovery Module was installed on the Piper Alpha platform. This decision left hand an unfortunate legacy in its design, as some of the gas crunch works had to be sited in Module C, which was later called the Gas Compression Module. Figure 4 illustrates the layout of Production Level 84. It excretely shows how th e compression works in Module C were close to many sensitive areas in Module D, such as the make Room, the Electrical Power Gas Turbine Generators, the essential diesel engine engine Generator, the Fire Pumps manual of arms tone down Panel and some of the Electrical Switch Rooms. The Accommodation Block, where the crewmen lived, was located above Module D, with the whirlybird in compressede (or Helideck) on top of it as shown in Figure 3.Figure 4 Production Level 84 FirewallsHazard Blast-Proof WallsSince Piper Alpha was initially designed to produce oil, notwithstanding Fire-Proofed walls were installed to separate its four modules instead of Blast-Proof walls, which are installed on gas production platforms. Figure 4 shows the locations of the Fire-Proofed walls as well as their ratings. The B/C and the C/D walls did not withstand the depression explosion. Their failure was the beginning of the end for the platform.Hazard Fire-Fighting SystemPiper Alpha was render with a state-of-the-art Automatic Fire-Fighting System. It relied on two different sets of pumps for operation electrically powered and diesel powered. They would suck in huge amounts of seawater via underwater inlets to inconvenience any fires. However, the safety routines on the platform dictated that the system would be switched over to manual control in case divers were in the water regardless of their locations with respect to the inlets so that they would not get sucked in. That procedure neer considered the possibility of a fire or an explosion blocking access to the Manual Control Panel, preventing the crew from operating the pumps and eventually causing the fire to rage unchallenged.ii deck support frame level 64Two overlarge gas pumps, designated A and B, were pose in Module C. Those were responsible for pressurizing the produced gas and sending it to the offshore Manifold Compression platform MCP-01, some thirty miles to the North West of Piper Alpha. They were also responsible for providing the gas required for generating Electrical Power that fed the entire platform. They operated in redundancy i.e. one was operated and the other was put on standby in case the former stopped working. Those two pumps were present on level 68, sixteen levels below production level recite 84.Figure 5 Deck Support Frame of Level 68 Location of Pumps A BA pipeline eighteen inches in diam acted as the Main Gas Line (MGL), carrying the gas production of Piper Alpha to the Manifold Compression Platform, MCP-01. A year later, some other eighteen-inch pipeline was extend from the Tartan platform to Piper Alpha, in order to collect gas production from both rigs before sending it on the Main Gas Line to MCP-01. Later on, another sixteen-inch pipeline was extended from Piper Alpha to the Claymore production platform, to feed its onboard Gas Lift System.Hazard Gas LinesIn Figure 5, all gas lines also known as risers were secured with automatic taking into custody Safety Valves (ESVs) and Pig Traps to cut off gas time period in an out of the platform in case of emergencies and failures. However, there were no Remotely Operated Shutoff Valves (ROSOVs) on any of the lines that the neighbouring platforms could use in case the ESVs had failed or in case things on Piper Alpha had gone out of control. Moreover, two years prior to June the 6th 1988, Occidental Petroleum commissioned a report to investigate the safety of the platform after the added functionality and pipelines. The report portrayed a fearful image, clearly warning of the dangers of the gas lines. The findings stated that those gas lines would take hours to depressurize, mainly due to their capacities that was defined based on their lengths and diameters. The report went on to speculate that should anything happen to those lines, they could result in a High-Pressure Gas Fire that would be virtually impracticable to fight. Thus, putting the entire platform at risk, and threatening the lives of its personnel.Impact on the Pipeline networkSince the Piper oilfield was the first to be discovered, and Piper Alpha was the first platform to come online, its historic development and that of adjacent fields meant that the platform would become a centre for communication systems, as well as oil transfer, reaching land-based operations (Drysdale Evans, 1998). The belated installation of the Gas Module, and the subsequent extension of Gas Lines, further complicated an already complex network of pipelines interconnecting the three platforms Claymore, Piper Alpha, and Tartan with one another as well as with MCP-01 and the Flotta oil processing facility.Figure 6 shows this complex network of oil and Gas Lines connecting the four platforms and onshore installations. The Main Oil Line (MOL) carried oil from Piper to Flotta. Oil was routed from Tartan to Claymore, via a separate line, and from there it was sent onto the MOL, some thirty-five miles atomic number 74 of Piper. The MOL also carried the main communication cable (originating at Piper Alpha) between the three rigs and Occidentals Control Centre (OCC) on the Orkney Islands.Hazard Oil game PressureThe legacy of that design had not only reduced the level of Operational Safety on board of Piper Alpha significantly, but also it had put the entire communication system at risk. The design simply jeopardized losing all cable-based communications with OCC, in case an explosion or a massive rig fire took place. Furthermore, due to the lack of any Remotely Operated Shutoff Valves (ROSOVs) which would prevent the back flow of oil because of pressure differences and/or major failures in the Emergency Safety Valves (ESVs) the design exhibited a Back-Pressure nature that would allow oil from the Tartan and Claymore platforms to flow directly back into Piper Alpha instead of pass down the Main Oil Line to shore should Piper Alpha stop pumping oil. That hazard was an important factor in fuelling the oil fire that started in the Oil Separation compartment in Module B on board of the platform in peril.Figure 6 Claymore, Piper, Tartan Pipeline Network verticillated to disasterThe common image of the disaster can be attributed to a single devastating explosion on board the Piper Alpha. In fact, at once it took place, the catastrophe unfolded gradually. During one crucial hour, there were critical moments that it could have been averted. However, an unfortunate series of events led to the total destruction of the platform.On the morning of July the 6th, Pump A was undergoing routine maintenance and its pressure valve was removed for inspection. Another maintenance overhaul, which would have taken two weeks, was scheduled for the same pump but had not begun then. The valve removed was placed between the pump and the gas pipe sustenance it. The service crew sealed the pipe with a Blind Flange a flat metallic disc used to temporarily cover pipes and risers during various routine maint enance jobs. When the Day Shift ended at 600 PM, the job was not done. The supervising engineer prepared a Permit-to-Work (PTW) stating that the pressure valve was removed and that the pump should not be started under any circumstance (Wikipedia, 2010).The engineer then headed to the Control Room, where he found the platforms manager busy. He chose not to inform him that Pump A was out of order, and instead signed the new PTW, placed it on the managers desk and left to the Accommodation Block. This was the first critical moment in the timeline of the accident. The failure of the engineer to inform the manager with the serious condition of the pump is nothing but a clear example of terrible lack of communication between colleagues. It showcases a superficial attitude and approach by Occidentals personnel towards Safety. This failure is one of the main reasons of the disaster, if not its main trigger.An hour later, another maintenance job was taking place underwater divers were carry ing out a routine inspection and weld job on one of the pipes. Therefore, and as we explained previously, the Automatic Fire-Fighting System was switched to manual control. This was a safety practice to check over that divers would not get sucked in through the underwater inlets of the powerful fire extinguishing pumps. It is worth noting that on other platforms Fire-Fighting systems were controlled manually only if divers were very close to the inlets. This practice, which was enforced to ensure the safety of the divers, reduced that of the platform drastically and deprived it from an automated response by the Fire-Fighting System that could have saved it from its fatal doom yet another critical moment down the course of the horrible disaster.At 945 PM, Pump B suddenly stopped and could not be restarted. The pumps were responsible for providing gas to the Gas Turbine Generators, which in turn provided the entire platform with Electrical Power. The sudden stop of Pump B, and the fa ilure to restart it, threatened the total loss of Electrical Power during ongoing drilling operations. This meant that the drilling head could get stuck at enormous costs. The system provided fifteen minutes of backup power, via the Emergency Diesel Generator, during which the only two choices were either restarting Pump B or obstetrical delivery Pump A online a crossroads that sent the platform and its crewmen down the coil to disaster.Pressured as time went by with no success at restarting Pump B, the engineer who was sent down to inspect the pump was forced to consider bringing Pump A online. He returned to the Control Room on level 84 and searched through the PTWs, trying to determine whether Pump A could be started or not. He located the PTW for the General go across that had not started then, yet failed to find the newer one that stated that the pumps pressure valve was removed. He signed off the General Overhaul PTW and returned to level 68 to start Pump A.The reason why th e engineer could not find the newer PTW is simple the pressure valve was in a different location from the pump and therefore its permits were stored in a different corner, as PTWs on board the platform were sorted by location. The engineer never checked the PTW box for the location where the pressure valve was. None of the personnel present in the Control Room then was aware that a vital piece of the pump had been removed. The platforms manager assumed from the existing documents that it would be safe to start Pump A (Wikipedia, 2010).In fact, no one noticed that the pressure valve had been removed as it was placed several metres above the ground of level 64. Furthermore, it was blocked from line-of-sight by gas risers. Ten minutes later, Pump A was started, allowing gas to flow into it in the absence seizure of the pressure valve, which quickly resulted in an overpressure the Blind Flange could not withstand. Gas started to leak at very high pressure and in great amounts, with lo ud sounds that took the crewmen on level 64 by surprise. The leak triggered several gas alarms. However, at exactly 950 PM, and before anyone could realize the situation and object a response, the gas ignited and blow up, blowing through the Fire-Proofed walls.In the initial blast, the Fire-Proofed walls B/C and C/D failed. Panels from the C/D wall were propelled into Module D, destroying the Control Room, the Emergency Diesel Generator, and the Gas Turbine Generators, starting a hydrocarbon fire fed by a mixture of gas and diesel and blocking access to both the Manual Control Panel of the Fire-Fighting System as well as the Life gravy holder Entry Points. The platforms manager quickly pressed the Emergency Shutdown button, closing the Emergency Safety Valves (ESVs) on the sea lines and ceasing all oil and gas production, before ordering an evacuation of the Control Room. This should have isolated the platform entirely from the flow of oil and gas. However, Panels from the fail ing B/C Fire-Proofed wall flew into Module B, rupturing another gas pipe as well as the main oil breakup manifolds, starting an oil fire in the Oil Separation compartment, which spread out to all of Module B within a few minutes.Figure 7 The Initial Fire on Piper Alpha. Black smoke indicating an Oil Fire is seen rising from Module BThe manager headed to the Radio Room, where he ordered a Mayday call to be transmitted. The Radio Room was then evacuated and all personnel headed to the Fire-Proofed Accommodation Block awaiting further book of instructions or evacuation by helicopters.Although Occidentals management was aware that a gas explosion on board Piper Alpha would be devastating, the managers on Claymore and Tartan never Shutdown oil production after they received the Mayday transmitted out of the burning platform. Even though black smoke could be seen on the horizon, which meant that there was an oil fire, the managers never suspected the failure of the Emergency Safety Val ves (ESVs). The oil fire, fed by oil from Tartan and Claymore, heated up the Tartan Gas Line to the point it failed. The pipeline ruptured, releasing 1530 tonnes of gas (pressurised to 120 ATM) per second. The gas burst into a massive fire ball that engulfed the entire Piper Alpha platform as well as a Fast Rescue Craft launched from the Multi-purpose Vessel Sandhaven. This situation was exactly what the report commissioned two years earlier had warned against a High-Pressure Gas Fire that would be impossible to put out. At this critical moment, the fate of the platform had already been decided, with no viable means of reversing it. The massive fire ball can be seen in Figure 8, as it instantaneously contained the platform and darkened the clear blue sky above it.Figure 8 Sequence of Images taken from a Video Footage captured by a Support Vessel showing the enlargement of the Tartan Gas Line. MV Lowland cavalier can be seen on the RightAs Figure 8 vividly illustrates, the wind wa s blowing in the direction of the Helideck, which in turn pushed fire and smoke towards it, making any helicopter landing absolutely impossible and an act of suicide. No further instructions were given to the trapped crewmen, who took shelter in the Accommodation Block, while smoke began to penetrate it. Some were seen jumping off the platform and into the water, against what their training instructed. Ironically, those were the ones who survived the tragic ordeal. The actions of two crewmen are worth noting. As the situation worsened, they donned Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and tried to make their way to the Manual Control Panel of the Fire-Fighting System to start the diesel pumps. Those two men were never seen again and their bodies were never recovered.Nearby, and as the situation rapidly escalated, the managers on Claymore and Tartan believed that they did not have the authority to order an Emergency Shutdown of production without first consulting their superiors. The i nitial explosion knocked off the main communication line with OCC however, Tartans manager somehow contacted his superior, and was instructed to stay online and continue pumping gas and oil. Meanwhile, Claymores manager tried for more than twenty minutes to raise OCC by satellite phone, but to no avail. When he finally succeeded at contacting his manger, the MCP 01 Gas Line failed and exploded, as they were speaking, at exactly 1050 PM. It was not until that point that Claymores manager finally ordered an Emergency Shutdown of production, after receiving instructions from his superior, who also instructed him to contact Tartan and tell them to shutdown as well.Figure 9 Sequence of Images taken from a Video Footage captured by a Rescue Helicopter showing the Explosion of the MCP 01 Gas Line. The MSV Tharos can be seen on the RightBy the time both platforms had ordered an Emergency Shutdown, there was no bout back for Piper Alpha the platform was destined to burn for hours more to come, until the pipelines were depressurised, and all the hydrocarbons they carried were depleted. The fearsome heat ate its way at the machinery and steelwork comprising the once wide platform in a tremendous scene that horrified everyone who saw it.The final chapter in the disaster was inevitable and quite expectable. The gas line feeding Claymore finally failed and ruptured at 1120 PM. The third explosion was the final nail in the platforms coffin. After withstanding the intense heat for more than an hour, the extension and Utilities Module D, home to the Accommodation Block, finally slid into the sea. Most of the platform soon fell after it. Forty-five minutes past midnight, the entire platform was gone, and only Module A was all that remained.Figure 10 Image from Video Footage taken by a Rescue Helicopter landing on the MSV-Tharos as the Final Explosion of Claymores Gas Line take placeThe Role of nearby Support vesselsThe Multi-purpose vessel LowLand cavalier (mv lowland c avalier)Although the Lowland Cavalier was the closest to Piper Alpha at the time of the initial explosion, she was only equipped as a Diving Support vessel then. She pulled away to safety immediately, after signalling the underwater divers to surface. Her role in the disaster was limited to reporting the first explosion.Figure 11 Recent Photos of the MV Lowland CavalierThe Multi-purpose vessel Silver Pit (mv silver pit)The Fast Rescue Craft MV Silver Pit was a converted fishing ship, with a itsy-bitsy Landing Area (yellow circular area seen in Figure 9). It was the first support vessel to respond. The largest number of survivors thirty-seven out of fifty-nine was recovered by her crew. Her coxswain, James Clark, received the George Medal a second level civil decoration of the get together Kingdom Commonwealth in deferred payment of his tremendous efforts in the Search Rescue operation (Scottish TV, 2010).Figure 12 Image taken from a Video taken by a Rescue Helicopter dur ing a Winch-Recovery of a Survivor picked up by the MV Silver Pitthe Multi-purpose vessel sandhaven (mv sandhaven)Though her actions show obvious disregard for common logic and safe practices, the efforts exerted by the crew of the Sandhaven were remarkable they raced against time to rescue Pipers oilmen from the raging inferno. In an insane act of bravery, and in defiance to every safety rule and procedure known in the world of Offshore Rescue Operations, she approached the burning platform to a very close distance, launching a fast rescue boat with three men on board that rescued six of Pipers crewmen. However, when the gas line from Tartan exploded, a massive fire ball engulfed the burning platform as well as that boat, killing two of its crewmen along with all of survivors. The lone survivor on board that boat, Ian Letham, was also awarded the George Medal in recognition of his participation in the relief efforts during the tragic ordeal.Figure 13 The Tharos (Left Background ) Sandhaven (Small Red Boat) next to Piper Alpha just as Tartans Gas line explodedthe Multi-purpose Support Vessel Tharos (msv tharos)The Tharos was a semi-submersible, multi-purpose support vessel. She comprised several roles such as Fire-Fighting, Construction, Accommodation and Diving Support. She also carried a fully operational hospital and was equipped with a massive Helideck. She was commissioned by Occidental Petroleum precisely to deal with emergencies on offshore platforms. On June the 6th, 1988, and by pure chance, she was anchored close to Piper Alpha. She should have been a Godsend however, upon approaching the burning platform, her crew started her water cannons too fast, tripping the Fire-Fighting system and wasting ten long minutes before successfully restarting it. Furthermore, those cannons were deemed very powerful, thus restricting the Tharos to as where to use them since the stream could seriously injure or even kill anyone it hits.Figure 14 Images taken from Video Footage taken during the landing of a Rescue Helicopter on the Helideck on board the MSV-Tharos showing the Vessels powerful cannons engaged in Fire-Fighting OperationsFigure 12 shows how close the Tharos was anchored to Piper as well as the locations of the MV -Lowland Cavalier and the MV Silver Pit mentioned earlier in this section.Figure 15 Locations of Support Vessels from Piper AlphaWorse still, the Tharos was equipped with an extensible bridge that could have worked as an escape route for the personnel trapped onboard, but due to flaws in its design it proved useless. The extension mechanism was too slow, taking five minutes to move two feet so to extend to its full thirty metres, it would have taken over an hour. At 1050 PM, the Tharos ran out of time the MCP-01 Gas Line ruptured and burst. A huge fireball burnt brilliantly in the dark sky over the North Sea, and to date is considered an icon of the Piper Alpha disaster. The gas burning was more than the entire consump tion of the United Kingdom. The intense heat threw the Tharos back, forcing her to return the bridge into its storage position, and from then on, her crew could only witness as Piper slowly melted and collapsed (McGinty, 2009).Figure 16 Screenshot from a Video Footage taken by a Surveillance Camera on board the MSV-Tharos showing the Extensible Bridge being extended towards Piper AlphaFigure 17 The Tharos docked to Piper Alpha via its Extensible Bridge Weeks before the DisasterFigure 10 shows the extensible bridge docked to Piper Alpha weeks before the disaster. Had the Tharos attempted to approach Piper to such a close distance, the situation would have turned into a nightmare, and the Tharos would have been engulfed in flames just like the Sandhaven. The Tharos continued fighting the fire from a safe distance until the morning of the following day.Divers from the Tharos recovered many bodies from the sea bed and from the galley area of the Accommodation Block, where most of the cr ewmen onboard gathered awaiting extraction by helicopter. The vessel supported the Fire-Fighting and Well Kill operations that eventually led to the extinguishing of the burning well three weeks later (Wikipedia, 2010).The AftermathThe Day AfterWith the break of light of the following day, the scale of the disaster was unravelled. The entire platform melted down to its core through the night and sank into the sea. Ironically, Module A, once considered the most dangerous section of the platform, remained fairly intact. That was attributed to the fact that the Fire-Proofed wall separating modules A and B did not fail. Of the massive platform, only what shows in Figures 15 and 16 was what was left.Figure 18 Module A carrying a sign with the platforms number and name Piper AFigure 19 The Remains of Piper Alpha with the MSV-Tharos in the BackgroundHuman LossA total of a hundred and sixty seven men lost their lives in the disaster of which, a hundred and sixty five were Piper Alpha crewm en. A hundred and sixty four of them died on site and one died later in hospital. Two crewmen from the MV Sandhaven died, along with six survivors from the platform, when their fast rescue craft was engulfed in flames after the explosion of Tartans gas link.Only sixty one men survived, almost all because they had decided to ignore what little training they had been given and jumped off the burning platform.Financial LossThe total financial loss amounted to U.S. $3.4 billion. It was paid in full by insurance companies that insured the platform and the personnel against operational hazards. The insurance companies also covered the cost of the Clean-Up operation. misemploy to Public ImageOccidental Petroleum claimed that their Safety Record was impeccable, claiming that it was the first time in twelve years that they had had a causality in the North Sea. However, their statement was challenged when various sources revealed that an oilman died four years earlier on board Piper Alph

The Purpose of Feathers in Non Avian Dinosaurs

The Purpose of Feathers in Non Avian DinosaursThere is a signifi spatet body of evidence within the scientific community over the past xv years to suggest-contrary to depictions in blockbuster movies and mass media-that dinosaurs, both avian and nonavian, had conjoins of some sort. Recent spectacular discoveries have suggested that modern day birds are descendents of dinosaurs, suggestions of the origin of such(prenominal) feathers, and the discovery of various types of ropy fibers and feathers that were prevalent in various species of both avian and nonavian dinosaurs throughout their history. Paradoxic wholey, there is no abundance of research and hypotheses regarding the function these feathers and filamentlike fibers had for nonavian bird-footed dinosaur dinosaurs throughout history. This paper will be exploring-using existing research-that gap of knowledge and seeking to make an informed hypothesis regarding the conclusion of feathers in theropod dinosaurs. More specifical ly, I will explore the role latitudes played on the presence of feathers in these creatures.Before one can talk at duration about feathers, we must define what feathers are and more specifically, what we define as feathers in relation to dinosaurs. In their paper titled, The Early Evolution of Feathers fogy render From Cretaceous Amber of France, by Vincent Perrichot et al, they define feathers on dinosaurs as, complex integumental mental synthesiss of a ternion-level branched structure composed of a rachis (primary shaft), barbs (secondary branches) and barbules (tertiary branches) (Vincent Perrichot et al. 1). Paleontologists report purpose filamentous fibers as well as true feathers on various species of dinosaurs from various epochs. In a recent study done by Xing Xu et al, An collective Approach to Understanding Bird Origins, Xu cites, numerous specimens of most theropod groups and even three ornithischian groups preserving feathers have been recovered from the Jurassic a nd Cretaceous beds of northeastern chinaware and from the Jurassic and Cretaceous beds of Germany, Russia, and Canada. (Xu et al 6). harmonize to Prado et. al., in their study, New Occurrences of Fossilized Feathers Systematics and Taphonomy of the Santana Formation of the Araripe Basin (Cretaceous), NE, Brazil, Feathers are the most complex integuments of vertebrates, due to their variety of forms and roles. This structure is responsible for the thermoregulation, display, protection against radiation, toxicity, buoyancy and even to produce sound (Prado et al 1). Experts have even found feathers in the form of bristle scales an intermediary event between scales and feathers, placodes, follicles, scales attached to the epidermis of the fossil, and in many other forms on all types of dinosaurs.With an understanding of how scientists today define feathers and where they have been found on dinosaurs, we can begin to explore what the existing hypotheses are regarding their purpose whe n found on nonavian dinosaurs. Christopher Dimond et al, in a study exploring the visual cues behind adaptive feathers in nonavian dinosaurs states, The three predominant hypotheses are 1) flight, 2) thermoregulation, and 3) visual display (Dimond et al 1). Additionally, Dimonds study cites other sources that hypothesize feathers could have been used for, insulation, water repellency, courtship, camouflage and defense (Prum and Brush, 2003), parental safeguard and brooding (Clarke and Middleton, 2006 Grellet-Tinner, 2006), shielding nests (Turner et al., 2007), flight or lift while running (Dial et al., 2006), and male-to-male competition (Cowen and Lipps, 1982). (Dimond et al 1). While all these hypotheses have been thoroughly researched and written about, I hypothesize that the major determining factor regarding the presence or absence of feathers in nonavian dinosaurs throughout history is the latitude in which the dinosaur lived. Nonavian theropod dinosaurs are cognize to have lived from the Late Triassic through the end of the Cretaceous. In A Review of Mesozoic Climates, Anthony Hallam definitively states, there is overwhelming evidence, based on the distri only ifion of typical sediments and fossils and oxygen isotope data, that the climate of the Mesozoic world was appreciably more equable than that of today (Hallam 1).With Hallams findings in mind, it can be assumed that even in the tropical hot earth world many scientists have described, nonavian dinosaurs might have needed feathers for colder nights and periods of darkness for insulation. Smaller species, that would require insulation for survival are an provable hypothesis as to the types of fossils found, but in another study done by Xing Xu et al, they postulate that Yutyrannus huali a new gigantic basal tyrannosauroid bears long filamentous feathers, therefrom providing direct evidence for the presence of extensively feathered gigantic dinosaurs and offering new insights into early feather evolution (Xu et al. 1). Found in China, Y hualis long filamentous feathers could have been an adaptation to a much colder environment than the rest of the planet. Xu further explains, Most gigantic Late Cretaceous tyrannosauroids, by contrast, lived in a warm climate that was conducive to the loss of an extensive insulative feathery covering, although populations inhabiting cold environments such as the land that is now Alaska would have been a notable elision (Xu et al. 1). Xus findings concur our previous misconceptions that dinosaurs didnt have feathers or filamentous structures. Why, for so long did we believe this to not be so?Until the first dinosaur fossil with a feather like structure attached was discovered in Brazil almost thirty years ago, humans and popular culture portrayed dinosaurs as reptilian. leathery pare, sometimes scaly, sometimes not, Dinosaurs appearance has varied little over the course of human study until the very recent future. The reason for this dis parity in scientific reporting was due to how difficult it is to find a fossil that preserves both the bone as well as the filamentous integument attached. The soil conditions upon demolition have to have been just right in order for preservation of this type to occur. Prado argues, Because feathers are very delicate features, they rarely survive the physicochemical go that follow their burial chamber. Thus, they are usually found as (i) carbonized and iron traces, (ii) inclusions in ambers and coprolites, (iii) and as imprints (Prado et al 1). Many of the most well preserved fossils with feather integuments assuage attached have been found in amber deposits recently, often perfectly preserving the skin attached to the feather. This can occur in a few circumstances. According to Prados research on feathers found at the Crato Fossil Bed in Brazil, the Crato Member was laid down under clear and relatively shallow wet during an arid and dry climate, where the carbonate sediments we re deposited in a low energetic input with formation of halite and anhydrite minerals (Prado et al. 1). An alternative suggestion by David Martill and Gunter Bechly in their work, The Crato Fossil Beds A Window into the Ancient World, argue once an anoxic and hypersaline bottom water body was established, the organic matter produced in the surface waters was no longer broken down by heterotrophic bacteria accumulated in the sediment (Martill 60). Due to the fragility of the structure of a feather or filamentous structure, conditions had to be just right to ensure preservation.Due to the conditions in which these fossils must be preserved, there can be a case do for why they are only found so well preserved in the locations above. The hypothesis above that mostly all dinosaurs had some type of filamentous coating could still hold true as the locations in which they have been found are not ideal for feather preservation. It appears that in order for a feather integument to be preserv ed, the conditions in which the initial preservation occurred and where the fossil migrated to must be precise. Prado cites, that lithology itself may not be a sure factor for skin preservation dinosaurs, it may be an important factor, and perhaps decisive, factor in feather preservation (Prado et al 1). While there is a great keep down of literature on lithology, what remains to be talked about is lithology with specific reference to geography. My hypothesis tends to focus on the importance of latitudes to explain why certain types of dinosaurs contained feathers, but another important factor to consider is the speed of burial near riverine environments. Hadrosaurids could provide a window into this phenomena. Mary Higby Schweizer, in her paper Soft create from raw stuff Preservation in Terrestrial Mesozoic Vertebrates, argues, it could be that hadrosaurids were more likely to preserve skin than other dinosaurs because, during life, hadrosaurids preferred an environment conducive to rapid burial and preservation of soft tissues (Wegweiser et al. 2006). This is a fascinating argument, as it brings to light a host of various factors that could potentially cause the feathers on other species of dinosaurs to not be preserved. Essentially, if a dinosaurs natural environment was not conducive to a perfect fossilization of delicate integumentary structures, these records would be lost for perpetually in nature.Christopher Dimond et al, in their paper, Feathers, Dinosaurs, and Behavioral Cues Defining the Visual Display Hypothesis for the Adaptive Function of Feathers in Non-Avian Theropods, claims that initial forms of feathers in theropod dinosaurs were mainly utilized to signal. Whether it was sexual planetary house for mating, deterrence of predators, or camouflage while hunting, these feathers served the purpose of sending a message to a receiver. Throughout the paper, Dimond posits that feathers in theropods were utilized to trigger a behavioral response in the receiver (Dimond et al 2011). While they do not rule out feathers for thermoregulation in theropods, their focus on visual display as an adaptive feature is marvel. While I agree with their position that signaling could have been an ancestral form of feathers in these types of dinosaurs, I believe that the main purpose for filamentous integuments on these types of dinosaurs was for thermoregulation in a climate that vastly varied in temperature. Even today, which by and large is considered to be colder, the variation in temperature on a given day-even in the tropics-is enough to make a hairless creature rapidly lose body heat. This loss of body heat in an environment less forgiving than a tropical one might have spurred an adaptation such as feathers over the course of history.The study of dinosaurs is ever evolving as our technological ability to analyze every aspect of their world grows by the day. Specifically, when studying feathers and filamentous integuments, our technolo gy has caught up recently enough to key out the most minute details that for years, we were unable to identify. This has provided the scientific community with a window into what I believe, is a common character in nearly all dinosaurs-similar to mammals today. Just as in mammalia, dinosaurs adapted over millions of years to be as fit as possible for their respective environments and for the changes occurring on Earth at the time. Our ability to detect these adaptations, while much improved, is mainly contingent upon the environment in which they are interred. With the advent of new technology, science will continue to explore the relationship between feathers in theropods and similar dinosaurs and the latitudes in which they cohabitated.WORKS CITEDDimond, Christopher C., Robert J. Cabin, and Janie S. Brooks. Feathers, Dinosaurs, and Behavioral Cues Defining the Visual Display Hypothesis for the Adaptive Function of Feathers in Non-Avian Theropods. Bios 82.3 (2011) 58-63. Web.Halla m, Anthony . A Review of Mesozoic Climate. Journal of the Geological Society of London 142.3 (1985) 433-55. Web.Martill, David M. The Crato fossil beds of brazil window into an ancient world. Cambridge Cambridge Univ Press, 2011. Print.Prado GMEM, Anelli LE, Petri S, Romero GR. (2016) New occurrences of fossilized feathers systematics and taphonomy of the Santana Formation of the Araripe Basin (Cretaceous), NE, Brazil. PeerJ 4e1916 https//doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1916Perrichot, Vincent et al. The Early Evolution of Feathers Fossil Evidence from Cretaceous Amber of France. Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 275.1639 (2008) 1197-1202. PMC. Web. 22 Mar. 2017.Schweitzer, Mary Higby. Soft tissue Preservation in Terrestrial Mesozoic Vertebrates. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 39.1 (2011) 187-216. Web.Xu, X., Z. Zhou, R. Dudley, S. Mackem, C.-M. Chuong, G. M. Erickson, and D. J. Varricchio. An integrative approach to understanding bird origins. Science346.6 215 (2014) 1253293. Web.

Gynecomastia :: science

Gynecomastia Definition Gynecomastia is a common disease of the male breast where there is a benign glandular enlargement of that breast at most time in the males life. It usually consists of the appearance of a flat pad of glandular tissue paper beneath a nipple which becomes tender at the same time. The development may be unilateral or bilateral. There is rarely a act growth of the breast tissue ordinarily the process is of brief duration and stops short of the production of permanent enlargement of the breast. Causes A great fall of patients who suffer from this disease have a disturbance in the proper ratio of androgen and estrogen levels. The normal ratio of the two hormones in germ plasm is approximately 1001. The etiology of gynecomastia in patients with a known documented cause appears to be related to increased estrogen stimulation, decreased testosterone levels, or some alteration of the estrogens and androgen so that the androgen-estrogen ratio is decreased(Williams 3 73). From this information it was discovered that there is overly a lower ratio of weaker adrenal androgens (delta 4-androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone) found in youths with this disease. It was once believed that there was an imbalance in the ratios of testosterone to estrogen or estradiol, but this is now know to be untrue. There are three areas the can be attributed to the cause of gynecomastia physiologic, pathologic and pharmacologic. Enlargement of the male breast can be a normal physiologic phenomenon at certain st eras of life or the depart of several pathologic states.(Isselbacher, 2037) In the case of physiologic gynecomastia the disease can occur in a newborn baby, at puberty or at any time in a mans life. In the newborn, transient enlargement of the breast is due to the action of maternal and/or placental estrogens. The enlargement usually disappears within a few weeks. Adolescent gynecomastia is common during puberty with the onset at the median age of 14. It is often asymmetrical and frequently tender. It regresses so that by the age of 20 only a small number of men have palpable vestiges of gynecomastia in one or both the breasts. Gynecomastia of aging also occurs in otherwise healthy men. Forty percent or more of aged men have gynecomastia. One explanation is the increase in age in the conversion of androgens to estrogens in extra- glandular tissues. Drug therapy and abnormal liver functioning can also be causes of gynecomastia in older men.

The Ethics of Violence in Computer Games :: Technology Essays

The Ethics of Violence in Computer GamesViolence in exposure games was never a hot topic until April 20th, 1999. After the columbine High School shooting rocked the nation with its unbelievable random brutality, a shocked nation searched for answers. There must deliver been some reason for Eric Harris and Dylan Klebolds bloody rampage. The nation needed a scapegoat for this horrible event, something to take the blame. A lot of the blame landed on the media, the music industry, and violent video games. The debate over how video games influence kids still continues. There are legion(predicate) opinions on how harmful or harmless video games really are. Recently, many legislators seem to brook decided that video games are, in fact, very harmful to kids. Legislation is currently being created to restrict and censor violent video games. Traditionally, parents have been the ones responsible and in control of what their children were exposed to on the computer. Now legislators want to g overn what kids are exposed to rather than trust this job to the parents. This is a exit from how other forms of media are governed. Kids are legally allowed to buy any kind of music regardless of parental advisories and to view any kind of violence on TV. It is the parents job to determine if their kids are allowed to listen to that music or watch that TV. It should remain the same way with video games. It is unethical to take these choices out of the parents hands. It is the parents office and right to raise their children how they see fit. However, the industry also has an important role to play. The music industry puts parental advisories on music content parents may commence inappropriate and parents are informed of channel content when they sign up for cable. Likewise, the game industry needs to improve upon their methods of informing parents of the content in their games. Parents should be responsible for regulating the types of games their kids are exposed to, however, t he video game industry has a responsibility to accurately and honestly communicate the level of violence pictured in their games. The effects of video games on kids is a relatively new topic of research. Initialstudies have resulted in inconclusive and conflicting results. Most researchers have simply decided that video games should have the same negative effect on children as TV does, since the two mediums appear to be so similar.

Stereotypes Essay -- essays research papers

RaStereotyping is a way of thinking about groups of masses. It ignores the differences of the group, while emphasizing its similarity. One belief, that is a stereotype, is that red-haired people are hot tempered. Another belief is that Scottish people are stingy. Such thinking ignores many even-tempered redheads and generous Scottish people. Stereotyping emphasizes many differences amongst groups while ignoring their similarities to other people. It ignores that many blond and brown-haired people also lose their tempers. Stereotyping overlooks the fact that many American, Brazilians and French people are stingy.Stereotyping redheads or Scottish people usually does little harm. It typically leads to friendly kidding and good-natured jokes. Simple-minded stereotyping can be dangerous. The danger lies in exaggeration of differences in color, nationality, religion and language. We mislead the differences, ignoring what we share as human beings and become prejudiced. Prejudice is nou rished by fear as it grows out of exaggeration. It is a profoundly negative emotion object the fruit of hatred.Racism is a form of extreme prejudice that leads to physical and psychological violence. Racists can be any color white, black, brown, red or yellow. A white racist thinks all blacks are alike, while a black racist thinks all Hispanics are alike. In addition, a Hispanic racist whitethorn think all Native Americans are alike. The ethnic boundaries of racism "pigeon hole" anoth...

Developing Communication Essay -- Interpersonal Communication

Communication skills ar vital to the managers success. A manager must be an good communicator to lead people. Assessing your chat skills is the key to your success nevertheless, most people fail to recognize the role conference plays. When assessing your communication abilities, it is essential to review your interpersonal communication skills. Interpersonal skills are the most crucial skill that is needed to be an effective manager. Interpersonal communication skills are a type of collateral communication that is the key to empowering people and motivating others to become more effective and efficient employees (South University Online, 2011, p. 1). Supportive communication is beneficial in communicating both honestly and accurately, it preempt preserve or enhance your personal, and professional relationships while providing information and resolving issues with your counterparts (South University Online, p.1). In this essay, I will us the eight principles of supportive comm unication (problem oriented, congruence, descriptive, validates, specific, conjunctive, owned, and supportive listening) to reflect how a conversation with my daughter was impacted by my communication style.Synopsis of the Conversation My 13-year-old daughter was attending a friend birthday party. When she came into the den to let me accredit that she was leaving with her friend and parent, I must have given a strange look or appeared to look angry. She wanted to know why I was looking at her like that. I responded by pointing out that I felt her outfit was inappropriate to wear because it was too victimize and revealing for her age. She should choose another outfit to wear. My daughter pointed out that she had borrowed from one of her frie... ...(2005) states that good listeners are more likely perceived to be skillful communicator. goalI choose the conversation with my daughter to explore the eight principles of supportive communication. Some may fell that with children that c ommunication must be handled differently. On my conjecture I supervise, college students. I often view other supervisors communicating different with students than adult. I have taken management classes over the year and I witness that the most effective manager will make self-analysis and seek ways to over come defensiveness and disconfirmation. The eight principle of supportive communication are an excellent place to start and beneficial to you whereas you can communicate effectively with anyone. My conversation with my daughter would not have not been as positive as it where if I was not already knowledge and seeking improvement.

Evil In The World :: essays research papers

Portraying Evil in the WorldThe article I picked to show the hellish in the world today was about a man named Abner Louima. This man was arrested in 1997 and is suing the state of New York for being beaten in a restroom in the station while being questioned. The touch on witness Conelle Lugg, 19, he heard loud screaming and banging noises against the wall of the bathroom while he was in his cell, he accordingly saw a police officer push Louima into a cell pants down and blood rushing out of his open wounds. The officer then proceeded to tell Louima to evolve on his knees. After all this Lugg said, that Louima fell to the floor and screamed in pain and begged to be taken to a hospital.Four officers are accused of brutalizing Louima, 32, a Haitian immigrant who was arrested in a fight outside a nightclub in August of 97 and was mistakenly accused of hitting an officer. When a paramedic lot got to the precinct and finally gave Louima a chair to sit in the officer who had placed Lo uima in the cell returned and told Louima to stop screaming in pain.At the trial Lugg was asked by the prosecution to point out the man he had seen put Louima in his cell. Lugg quickly pointed to Officer Justin A. Volpe who is charged with torturing Louima by ramming a stick into his rectum and then into his mouth. Prosecutors say that Louima suffered a torn rectum and bladder. Louima required two months of hospitalization and three operations to repair the damage Volpe had done. The three other officers are being charged with joining Volpe in beating Louima in the police car while driving to the precinct.This is one of the many stories I found in the newspaper that portrays evil in today&8217s society.